Essay : Vedic Age

Vedic Age

Duration: 1500 BC to 500 BC

The Vedic Period or the Vedic Age refers to that time period when the Vedic Sanskrit texts were composed in India. The society that emerged during that time is known as the Vedic Period, or the Vedic Age, Civilization. The Vedic Civilization flourished between the 1500 BC and 500 BC on the Indo-Gangetic Plains of the Indian subcontinent. This civilization laid down the foundation of Hinduism as well as the associated Indian culture. The Vedic Age was followed by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India.

Vedic Texts
Linguistically, the texts belonging to the Hindu Vedic Civilisation can be classified into the following five chronological branches:

Rigvedic
The oldest text of the Vedic Period, Rig Veda has many elements that are common with the Indo-Iranian texts, both in language and in content. One cannot find such similarity in any other Vedic text. It is believed that the compilation of the Rig Veda had stretched over a number of centuries. However, there is a conflict as to the completion date of the Rig Veda. Some historians believe it to be 1500 BC, while the others believe it to be 3000 BC. This time period coincided with the Indus Valley Civilization.

Mantra Language
The period of the Mantra Language includes the time of the compilation of the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Though derived from the Rig Veda, all these texts experienced wide scale changes, in terms of language as well as at the time of reinterpretation. This time period coincided with the early Iron Age in northwestern India and the Black and Red Ware culture.

Samhita Prose
The period of Samhita Prose represents the compilation and codification of a Vedic canon. The linguistic changes of this time include the complete loss of the injunctive, the subjunctive and the aorist. The commentary part of the Yajurveda belongs to the Samhita Prose period. During this time, the Painted Grey Ware culture was evident.

Brahmana Prose
This period signifies Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas, along with the oldest Upanishads.

Sutra Language
The last division of the Vedic Sanskrit can be traced upto 500 BC. During this time, a major portion of the Srauta Sutras, the Grihya Sutras and some Upanishads were composed.

Epic and Paninian Sanskrit (Post Vedic)
In the post-Vedic Period, the compilation of Mahabharata and Ramayana epics took place. The Classical Sanskrit described by Panini also emerged after the Vedic Age. The Vedanta and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. During this time, the Northern Black Polished Ware culture started spreading over the northern parts of India.

The end of the Vedic Period Civilization in India was marked by significant changes in the field of linguistics, culture and politics. With the invasion of the Indus valley by Darius I, in the 6th century, outside influences started creeping in.

Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period)
The Rigvedic Period represents the time period when the Rig Veda was composed. The Rig Veda comprises of religious hymns, and allusions to various myths and stories. Some of the books even contain elements from the pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Some similarities are also found with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms. Thus, it is difficult to define the exact beginning of the Rigvedic period. The prominent features of the Rigvedic period are given below:

Political Organization
The political units during the Rigvedic or the early Vedic period comprised of Grama (village), Vish and Jana. The biggest political unit was that of Jana, after which came Vish and then, Grama. The leader of a Grama was called Gramani, of a Vish was called Vishpati and that of Jana was known as Jyeshta. The rashtra (state) was governed by a Rajan (King) and he was known as Gopa (protector) and Samrat (supreme ruler). The king ruled with the consent and approval of the people. There were four councils, namely Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana, of which women were allowed to attend only two, Sabha and Vidhata. The duty of the king was to protect the tribe, in which he was assisted by the Purohita (chaplain) and the Senani (army chief).

Society and Economy
Numerous social changes took place during the early Vedic period. The concept of Varna, along with the rules of marriage, was made quite stiff. Social stratification took place, with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas being considered higher than the Shudras and the Vaisyas. Cows and bulls were accorded religious significance. The importance of agriculture started growing. The families became patriarchal and people began praying for the birth of a son.

Vedic Religious Practices
Rishis, composers of the hymns of the Rig Veda, were considered to be divine. Sacrifices and chanting of verses started gaining significance as the principal mode of worship. The main deities were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma. People also worshipped Mitra-Varuna, Surya (Sun), Vayu (wind), Usha (dawn), Prithvi (Earth) and Aditi (the mother of gods). Yoga and Vedanta became the basic elements of the religion.

Later Vedic Period
The later Vedic Period commenced with the emergence of agriculture as the principal economic activity. Along with that, a declining trend was experienced as far as the importance of cattle rearing was concerned. Land and its protection started gaining significance and as a result, several large kingdoms arose.

Political Organization
The rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas, along with the increasing powers of the King, comprise of the other characteristics of this period. Rituals like rajasuya, (royal consecration), vajapeya (chariot race) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) became widespread. At the same time, the say of the people in the administration diminished.

Society
As far as the society is concerned, the concept of Varna and the rules of marriage became much more rigid than before. The status of the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas increased greatly and social mobility was totally restricted. The proper pronunciation of verses became to be considered as essential for prosperity and success in war. Kshatriyas started amassing wealth and started utilizing the services of the Brahmins. The other castes were slowly degraded. Around 500 BC, the later Vedic Period started giving rise to the period of the Middle kingdoms of India.

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Essay : Indus Valley Civilisation

Indus Valley Civilisation

Duration: 3300 BC to 1700 BC

Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization that thrived in the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, now in Pakistan, along with the northwestern parts of India, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. The civilization, which is also known as Harappan Civilization, lasted from 3300 BC to 1700 BC. The discovery of the Ancient Indus River Valley Civilization was made, when the Harappan city, the first city of Indus Valley, was excavated.

Discovery
The first description of the ruins of Harappa is found in the Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and Punjab of Charles Masson. It dates back to the period of 1826 to 1838. In 1857, the British engineers accidentally used bricks from the Harappa ruins for building the East Indian Railway line between Karachi and Lahore. In the year 1912, J. Fleet discovered Harappan seals. This incident led to an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921-1922. The result of the excavation was discovery of Harappa by Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats and Mohenjodaro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall.

Further Excavations
Even though most of the Mohenjodaro city had been unearthed by 1931, the excavation campaigns continued to be undertaken. Sir Mortimer Wheeler, the then director of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), led one such campaign in 1944. After the partition of India in 1947, the area of the Indus Valley Civilization was divided between India and Pakistan. In 1949, Sir Mortimer Wheeler conducted excavations as the Archaeological Adviser to the Government of Pakistan. The next three decades were full of discoveries of the remnants of civilization.

Geography
The Ancient Indus River Valley Civilization extended from Balochistan to Gujarat and from the east of the river Jhelum to Rupar. Some time back, a number of sites were also discovered in Pakistan's NW Frontier Province. Harappan Civilization covered most of Pakistan, along with the western states of India. Even though most of the sites have been found on the river embankments, some have been excavated from the ancient seacoast and islands as well. As per some archaeologists, the number of Harappan sites, unearthed along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries, is around 500. Apart from that, those along the Indus and its tributaries are approximately 100 in number.

Phases
The three main phases of the Indus Valley Civilization are:

• Early Harappan (Integration Era)


• Mature Harappan (Localization Era)


• Late Harappan (Regionalization Era)

Early Harappan Phase
The Early Harappan Phase lasted from 3300 BC to 2800 BC. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley. The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC. This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Trade networks had been established and there was also domestication of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc, were grown during that time. Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan Phase.

Mature Harappan Phase
By 2600 BC, Indus Valley Civilization had entered into a mature stage. The early Harappan communities were turning into large urban centers, like Harappa and Mohenjodaro in Pakistan and Lothal in India. The concept of irrigation had also been introduced. The following features of the Mature Phase were more prominent:

Cities
Approximately 1052 cities and settlements belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization have been excavated till date, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar and Indus Rivers and their tributaries. The artifacts discovered in these cities suggest a sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture. The concept of urban planning is also widely evident. There is also the existence of the first urban sanitation systems in the world. the sewerage and drainage system found in the each and every city of Indus Valley comes across as even more efficient than those in some areas of Pakistan and India today.

Dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms and protective walls have been found in almost all the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. The evidence suggests that most city dwellers were traders or artisans, who lived with others belonging to the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Social equality seems to be widely prevalent in the cities of Indus Valley, though there are some houses that are bigger than the others.

Science
The people of Indus Valley are believed to be amongst the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. Their smallest division was approximately 1.704 mm. Decimal division of measurement was used for all practical purposes. The brick weights were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1. The numerous inventions of the Indus River Valley Civilization include an instrument used for measuring whole sections of the horizon and the tidal dock. The people of Harappa evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. They also had the knowledge of proto-dentistry and the touchstone technique of gold testing.

Arts and Culture
Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry and figurines in terracotta, bronze and steatite, etc, have been excavated from the sites of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization. Other crafts that have been unearthed include shell works, ceramics, agate, glazed steatite bead making, special kind of combs, etc. There is also evidence of seals, toys, games and stringed musical instruments in the Indus Valley.

Trade and Transportation
Trade seems to the major occupation of the people of the Harappan Civilization. The main forms of transport include bullock carts and boats. Archaeologists have also discovered an enormous, dredged canal and docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal. The pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc, of the civilization show great similarities with those of Central Asia and the Iranian plateau, indicating trade with them. Then, there are signs of maritime trade network between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations also.

Agriculture
The major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley. However, not much information is available on the farmers and their agricultural methods.

Symbol System
As many as 400 distinct Indus symbols have been found on seals, ceramic pots and other materials excavated from the Indus Valley. Typical Indus inscriptions are, at the most, four or five characters in length and quite small. The longest inscription on any object is 26 symbols long. Indus symbols have been found on ritual objects also, many of which were mass-produced.

Religion
The large number of figurines found in the Indus Valley Civilization suggests that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother Goddess, who symbolized fertility. Some of the seals of that time also have the swastikas engraved on them. Then, there are some others in which a figure is seated in a yoga-like posture and is surrounded by animals. The figure is quite similar to that of Lord Pashupati, the Lord of Creatures.

Late Harappan Phase
The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to have started around 1800 BC. By 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. However, one can see the various element of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures. Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC. The major reasons of the decline of the civilization are believed to be connected with climate change. Not only did the climate become much cooler and drier than before, but substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system also disappeared.

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Chhatrapati Shivaji

Name: Shivaji Bhonsle

Date of Birth: February 19, 1630

Birthplace: Shivneri Fort, Pune district, Maharashtra

Parents: Shahaji Bhonsle (Father) and Jijabai (Mother)

Reign: 1674–1680

Spouse: Saibai, Soyarabai, Putalabai, Sakvarbai, Laxmibai, Kashibai

Children: Sambhaji, Rajaram, Sakhubai Nimbalkar, Ranubai Jadhav, Ambikabai Mahadik, Rajkumaribai Shirke

Religion: Hinduism

Death: April 3, 1680

Seat of Power: Raigad Fort, Maharashtra

Successor: Sambhaji Bhonsle

Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India. He is considered to be one of the greatest warriors of his time and even today, stories of his exploits are narrated as a part of the folklore. With his valor and great administrative skills, Shivaji carved out an enclave from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur. It eventually became the genesis of the Maratha Empire. After establishing his rule, Shivaji implemented a competent and progressive administration with the help of a disciplined military and well-established administrative set-up. Shivaji is well-known for his innovative military tactics that centered around non-conventional methods leveraging strategic factors like geography, speed, and surprise to defeat his more powerful enemies.

Childhood & Early Life

Shivaji Bhosle was born on February 19, 1630 to Shahaji Bhosle and Jijabai in the fort of Shivneri, near the city of Junnar of the Pune district. Shivaji’s father Shahaji was in service of the Bijapuri Sultanate - a tripartite association between Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golconda, as a general. He also owned a Jaigirdari near Pune. Shivaji’s mother Jijabai was the daughter of Sindkhed leader Lakhujirao Jadhav and a deeply religious woman. Shivaji was especially close to his mother who instilled in him a strict sense of right and wrong. Since Shahaji spent most of his time outside of Pune, the responsibility of overseeing Shivaji’s education rested on the shoulders of a small council of ministers which included a Peshwa (Shamrao Nilkanth),a Mazumdar (Balkrishna Pant), a Sabnis (Raghunath Ballal), a Dabir (Sonopant) and a chief teacher (Dadoji Konddeo). Kanhoji Jedhe and Baji Pasalkar were appointed to train Shivaji in military and martial arts. Shivaji was married to Saibai Nimbalkar in 1640.

Shivaji turned out to be a born leader from a very young age. An active outdoorsman, he explored the Sahayadri Mountains surrounding the Shivneri forts and came to know the area like the back of his hands. By the time he was 15, he had accumulated a band of faithful soldiers from the Maval region who later aided in his early conquests.

Struggles with Bijapur

By 1645, Shivaji acquired control of several strategic from under the Bijapur Sultanate around Pune – Torna from Inayat Khan, Chakan from FirangojiNarsala, Kondana from Adil Shahi Governor, along with Singhagarh and Purandar. Following his success, he had emerged as a threat for Mohammed Adil Shah who gave the order to imprison Shahaji in 1648. Shahaji was released on condition that Shivaji kept a low profile and kept from further conquests. Shivaji resumed his conquests after Shahaji’s death in 1665 by acquiring the valley of Javali from Chandrarao More, a Bijapuri jaigirdaar. Mohammed Adil Shah sent Afzal Khan, a powerful general in his employ to subdue Shivaji.

The two met in a private rendezvous on November 10, 1659 to discuss terms of negotiation. Shivaji anticipated it to be a trap and he arrived prepared wearing armor and concealing a metal tiger claw.  When Afzal Khan attacked Shivaji with a dagger, he was saved by his armour and Shivaji retaliated by attacking Afzal Khan with the tiger’s claw, mortally injuring him. He ordered his forces to launch an assault on the leaderless Bijapuri contingents. Victory was easy for Shivaji in the Battle of Pratapgarh, where around 3000 Bijapuri soldiers were killed by the Maratha forces. Mohammed Adil Shah next sent a larger army under the command of General Rustam Zaman who faced Shivaji in the Battle of Kolhapur. Shivaji secured victory in a strategic battle causing the general to flee for his life. Mohammed Adil Shah finally saw victory when his general Siddi Jauhar successfully sieged the fort of Panhala on September 22, 1660. Shivaji recaptured the Fort of Panhal later in 1673.

Conflicts with the Mughals

Shivaji’s conflicts with the Bijapuri Sultanate and his continuous victories brought him under the radar of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb saw him as a threat to expansion of his imperial intent and concentrated his efforts on eradicating the Maratha threat. Confrontations began in 1957, when Shivaji’s generals raided and looted Mughal territories near Ahmednagar and Junnar. However, Aurangzeb’s retaliation was thwarted by arrival of rainy season and battle for succession back in Delhi. Aurangzeb directed Shaista Khan, Governor of Deccan and his maternal uncle, to subdue Shivaji. Shaista Khan launched a massive attack against Shivaji, capturing several forts under his control and even his capital Poona. Shivaji retaliated back by launching a stealth attack on Shaista Khan, eventually injuring him and evicting him from Poona. Shaista Khan later arranged multiple attacks on Shivaji, severely reducing his holds of forts in the Konkan region. To replenish his depleted treasury, Shivaji attacked Surat, an important Mughal trading center and looted the Mughal wealth. An infuriated Aurangzeb sent his chief general Jai Singh I with an army of 150,000. The Mughal forces made considerable dent, sieging forts under Shivaji’s control, extracting money and slaughtering soldiers in their wake. Shivaji agreed to come to an agreement with Aurangzeb to prevent further loss of life and the Treaty of Purandar was signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh on June 11, 1665. Shivaji agreed to surrender 23 forts and pay a sum of 400000 as compensation to the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb invited Shivaji to Agra with an aim to use his military prowess to consolidate Mughal empires in Afghanistan. Shivaji travelled to Agra with his eight year old son Sambhaji and was offended by Aurangzeb’s treatment of him. He stormed out of the court and an offended Aurangzeb placed him under house arrest. But Shivaji once again used his wit and cunning to escape the imprisonment. He feigned severe illness and arranged for baskets of sweets to be sent to temple as offerings for prayer. He disguised as one of the carriers and hid his son in one of the baskets, and escaped on August 17, 1666. In subsequent times, Mughal and Maratha hostilities were pacified to a large extent by constant mediation through Mughal Sardar Jaswant Singh. Peace lasted till 1670, after which Shivaji launched an all-out offense against the Mughals. He recovered most of his territories sieged by the Mughals within four months.

Relationship with The English

Initial days of his reign, Shivaji maintained cordial relationships with the English till they supported the Bijapuri Sultanate in a confrontation against him in the capture of Fort of Panhala in 1660. So in 1670, Shivaji moved against the English in Bombay for them not selling him war material. This conflict continued in 1971, when again the English refused their support in his attack of Danda-Rajpuri, and he looted the English factories in Rajapur. Numerous negotiations between the two parties to come to term failed and the English did not lend their support to his endeavors.

Coronation and Conquests

After having consolidated a considerable control over territories adjoining Poona and Konkan, Shivaji decided to adopt a Kingly title and establish the first Hindu Sovereignty in South, that was till now dominated by Muslims. He was crowned the King of Marathas on June 6, 1674, at Raigadh in an elaborate coronation ceremony. The Coronation was officiated by Pandit Gaga Bhatt in front of a gathering of around 50,000 people. He took upon several titles like Chhtrapati (paramount sovereign), Shakakarta (founder of an era), Kshatriya Kulavantas (head of Kshatriyas) and Haindava Dharmodhhaarak (one who uplifts the sanctity of Hinduism).

Post-coronation, the Marathas under Shivaji’s directives launched aggressive conquest efforts to consolidate most of the Deccan states under the Hindu Sovereignty. He conquered Khandesh, Bijapur, Karwar, Kolkapur, Janjira, Ramnagar and Belgaum. He captured forts at Vellore and Gingee, controlled by the Adil Shahi rulers. He also came to an understanding with his step-brother Venkoji over his holdings over Tanjavur and Mysore. What he aimed at was to unify the Deccan states under the rule of a native Hindu ruler and protect it from outsiders like the Muslims and Mughals.

Administration

Under his reign, the Maratha administration was established where Chhatrapati was the supreme sovereign and a team of eight ministers were appointed to oversee the proper enforcement of various policies. These eight ministers reported directly to Shivaji and were given a lot of power in terms of execution of policies formulated by the King. These eight ministers were –

(1) The Peshwa or Prime Minister, who was head of general administration and represented the king in his absence.

(2) The Majumder or the Auditor was responsible for maintain the financial health of the kingdom

(3) The PanditRao or Chief Spiritual Head was responsible for overseeing the spiritual well-being of the kindom, fix dates for religious ceremonies and oversee charitable programs undertaken by the king.

(4) The Dabir or Foreign Secretary was entrusted with the responsibility of advising the king on matters of foreign policies.

(5) The Senapati or Military General was in charge of overseeing every aspect of the military including organization, recruitment and training of soldiers. He also was the strategic advisor of the king in the time of a war.

(6) The Nyayadhish or Chief Justice saw formulations of law and their subsequent enforcement, civil, judicial as well as military.

(7) The Mantri or Chronicler was responsible for keeping elaborate records of everything the king did in his daily life.

(8) The Sachiv or Superintendant was in charge of royal correspondence.

Shivaji vigorously promoted the use of Marathi and Sanskrit in his court instead of Persian, the existing Royal language. He even changed the names of the forts under his control to Sanskrit names to accent his Hindu rule. Although Shivaji himself was a devout Hindu, he promoted tolerance for all religion under his rule. His administrative policies were subject-friendly and humane, and he encouraged liberty of women in his rule.He was strictly against caste discrimination and employed people from all caste in his court. He introduced the Ryotwari system eliminating the need for middlemen between farmers and the state and collecting revenues directly from the manufacturers and producers. Shivaji introduced the collection of two taxes called the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. He divided his kingdom into four provinces, each headed by a Mamlatdar. Village was the smallest unit of administration and the head was titled as Deshpande, who headed the Village Panchayat. Shivaji maintained a strong military force, built several strategic forts to secure his borders and developed a strong naval presence along the Konkan and Goan coasts.

Demise and Legacy

Shivaji died at the age of 52 on April 3, 1680, at the Raigad Fort, after suffering from a bout of dysentery. A conflict of succession arose after his death between his eldest son Sambhaji and his third wife Soyrabai on behalf of her 10-year old son Rajaram. Sambhaji dethroned the young Rajaram and ascended the throne himself on June 20, 1680.the Mughal-Maratha conflicts continued after Shivaji’s death and the Maratha glory declined greatly. However it was reclaimed by young Madhavrao Peshwa who reclaimed Maratha glory and established his authority over North India.

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Maharana Pratap - Mewar's Greatest Hero

Maharana Pratap - Mewar's Greatest Hero

 

Born: May 9, 1540 in Kumbhalgarh, Rajasthan
Father's Name: Maharana Udai Singh II
Mother's Name: Rani Jeevant Kanwar
Died: January 29, 1597 in Chavand

Maharana Pratap was born on 9th May 1540 in Kumbhalgarh, Rajasthan. His father was Maharana Udai Singh II and his mother was Rani Jeevant Kanwar. Maharana Udai Singh II ruled the kingdom of Mewar, with his capital at Chittor. Maharana Pratap was the eldest of twenty-five sons and hence given the title of Crown Prince. He was destined to be the 54th ruler of Mewar, in the line of the Sisodiya Rajputs.

In 1567, when Crown Prince Pratap Singh was only 27, Chittor was surrounded by the Mughal forces of Emperor Akbar. Maharana Udai Singh II decided to leave Chittor and move his family to Gogunda, rather than capitulate to the Mughals. The young Pratap Singh wanted to stay back and fight the Mughals but the elders intervened and convinced him to leave Chittor, oblivious of the fact that this move from Chittor was going to create history for all times to come.

In Gogunda, Maharana Udai Singh II and his nobles set up a temporary government of the kindom of Mewar. In 1572, the Maharana passed away, leaving the way for Crown Prince Pratap Singh to become the Maharana. However, in his later years, the late Maharana Udai Singh II had fallen under the influence of his favorite queen, Rani Bhatiyani, and had willed that her son Jagmal should ascend to the throne. As the late Maharana's body was being taken to the cremation grounds, Pratap Singh, the Crown Prince decided to accompany the dead body of the Maharana. This was a departure from tradition as the Crown Prince did not accompany the body of the departed Maharana but instead prepared to ascend the throne, such that the line of succession remained unbroken. Pratap Singh, in deference to his father's wishes, decided to let his half-brother Jagmal become the next king. However, knowing this to be disastrous for Mewar, the late Maharana's nobles, especially the Chundawat Rajputs, forced Jagmal to leave the throne to Pratap Singh. Unlike Bharat, Jagmal did not willingly give up the throne. He swore revenge and left for Ajmer, to join the armies of Akbar, where he was offered a jagir - the town of Jahazpur - in return for his help. Meanwhile, Crown Prince Pratap Singh became Maha Rana Pratap Singh I, 54th ruler of Mewar in the line of the Sisodiya Rajputs.



The year was 1572. Pratap Singh had just become the Maharana of Mewar and he had not been back in Chittor since 1567. His old fort and his home beckoned to him. The pain of his father's death, and the fact that his father had not been able to see Chittor again, troubled the young Maharana deeply. But he was not the only one troubled at this time. Akbar had control of Chittor but not the kingdom of Mewar. So long as the people of Mewar swore by their Maharana, Akbar could not realize his ambition of being the Jahanpanah of Hindustan. He had sent several emissaries to Mewar to get Rana Pratap to agree to sign a treaty but the letter was only willing to sign a peace treaty whereby the sovereignty of Mewar would be intact. In the course of the year 1573, Akbar sent six diplomatic missions to Mewar to get Rana Pratap to agree to the former's suzerainty but Rana Pratap turned down each one of them. The last of these missions was headed by Raja Man Singh, the brother-in-law of Akbar himself. Maharana Pratap, angered that his fellow Rajput was aligned with someone who had forced the submission of all Rajputs, refused to sup with Raja Man Singh. The lines were completely drawn now - Akbar understood that Maharana Pratap would never submit and he would have to use his troops against Mewar.

With the failure of efforts to negotiate a peace treaty in 1573, Akbar blockaded Mewar from the rest of the world and alienated Mewar's traditional allies, some of whom were Maharana Pratap's own kith and kin. Akbar then tried to turn the people of the all-important Chittor district against their king so they would not help Pratap. He appointed Kunwar Sagar Singh, a younger brother of Pratap, to rule the conquered territory, However, Sagar, regretting his own treachery, soon returned from Chittor, and committed suicide with a dagger in the Mughal Court. Shakti Singh, Pratap's younger brother now with the Mughal army, is said to have fled the Mughal court temporarily and warned his brother of Akbar's actions.

In preparation for the inevitable war with the Mughals, Maharana Pratap altered his administration. He moved his capital to Kumbhalgarh, where he was born. He commanded his subjects to leave for the Aravali mountains and leave behind nothing for the approaching enemy - the war would be fought in a mountain terrain which the Mewar army was used to but not the Mughals. It is a testament to the young king's respect amongst his subjects that they obeyed him and left for the mountains. The Bhils of the Aravalis were completely behind him. The army of Mewar now raided Mughal trade caravans going from Delhi to Surat. A section of his army guarded the all important Haldighati Pass, the only way to get into Udaipur from the North. Maharana Pratap himself undertook several penances, not because his finances forced him to do so, but because he wished to remind himself, and all his subjects, why they were undertaking this pain - to win back their freedom, their right to exist as they wished. He foreswore that he would eat from leaf-plates, would sleep on the floor and would not shave. In his self-inflicted state of penury, the Maharana lived in mud-huts made from mud and bamboo.

In 1576, the famous battle of Haldighati was fought with 20,000 Rajputs against a Mughal army of 80,000 men commanded by Raja Man Singh. The battle was fierce though indecisive, to the Mughal army's astonishment. Maharana Pratap's army was not defeated but Maharana Pratap was surrounded by Mughal soldiers. It is said that at this point, his estranged brother, Shakti Singh, appeared and saved the Rana's life. Another casualty of this war was Maharana Pratap's famous, and loyal, horse Chetak, who gave up his life trying to save his Maharana.

After this war, Akbar tried several times to take over Mewar, failing each time. Maharana Pratap himself was keeping up his quest for taking Chittor back. However, the relentless attacks of the Mughal army had left his army weaker, and he barely had enough money to keep it going. It is said that at this time, one of his ministers, Bhama Shah, came and offered him all this wealth - a sum enabling Maharana Pratap to support an army of 25,000 for 12 years. It is said that before this generous gift from Bhama Shah, Maharana Pratap, anguished at the state of his subjects, was beginning to lose his spirit in fighting Akbar.

In one incident that caused him extreme pain, his children's meal - bread made from grass - was stolen by a dog. It is said that this cut into Maharana Pratap's heart deeply. He began to have doubts about his resolute refusal to submit to the Mughals. Perhaps in one of these moments of self doubt - something each and every human being goes through - Maharana Pratap wrote to Akbar demanding "a mitigation of his hardship". Overjoyed at this indication of his valiant foe's submission, Akbar commanded public rejoicing, and showed the letter to a literate Rajput at his Court, Prince Prithiraj. He was the younger brother of Rai Singh, the ruler of Bikaner, a State established some eighty years earlier by the Rathores of Marwar. He had been compelled to serve Akbar because of his kingdom's submission to the Mughals. An award-winning poet, Prithiraj was also a gallant warrior and a longtime admirer of the brave Maharana Pratap Singh. He was astonished and grieved by Maharana Pratap's decision, and told Akbar the note was the forgery of some foe to defame the Mewar king. "I know him well," he explained, "and he would never submit to your terms." He requested and obtained Akbar's permission to send a letter to Pratap, ostensibly to ascertain the fact of his submission, but really with a view to prevent it. He composed the couplets that have become famous in the annals of patriotism.

The hopes of the Hindu rest on the Hindu; yet the Rana forsakes them. But for Pratap, all would be placed on the same level by Akbar; for our chiefs have lost their valour and our females their honour. Akbar is the broker in the market of our race: he has purchased all but the son of Udai (Singh II of Mewar); he is beyond his price. What true Rajput would part with honour for nine days (nauroza); yet how many have bartered it away? Will Chittor come to this market ...? Though Patta (an affectionate name for Pratap Singh) has squandered away wealth (on warfare), yet he has preserved this treasure. Despair has driven man to this market, to witness their dishonour: from such infamy the descendant of Hamir (Hamir Singh) alone has been preserved. The world asks, from where does the concealed aid of Pratap emanate? None but the soul of manliness and his sword ... The broker in the market of men (Akbar) will one day be surpassed; he cannot live forever. Then will our race come to Pratap, for the seed of the Rajput to sow in our desolate lands. To him all look for its preservation, that its purity may again become resplendent.

The now-famous letter led to Pratap reversing his decision and not submitting to the Mughals, as was his initial but reluctant intention. After 1587, Akbar relinquished his obsessive pursuit of Maharana Pratap and took his battles into Punjab and India's Northwest Frontier. Thus for the last ten years of his life, Maharana Pratap ruled in relative peace and eventually freed most of Mewar, including Udaipur and Kumbhalgarh, but not Chittor. Bhagwat Singh Mewar: "Maharana Pratap Singh (was) called the light and life of the Hindu community. There were times when he and his family and children ate bread made of grass." Maharana Pratap became a patron of the Arts. During his reign Padmavat Charita and the poems of Dursa Ahada were written. Palaces at Ubheshwar, Kamal Nath and Chavand bear testimony to his love of architecture. These buildings, built in the dense hilly forest have walls adorned with military-style architecture. But Pratap's broken spirit overpowered him in the twilight of his years. His last moments were an appropriate commentary on his life, when he swore his successor, Crown Prince Amar Singh to eternal conflict against the foes of his country's independence. Maharana Pratap was never able to win back Chittor but he never gave up fighting to win it back.

In January 1597, Rana Pratap Singh I, Mewar's greatest hero, was seriously injured in a hunting accident. He left his body at Chavand, aged 56, on January 29, 1597. He died fighting for his nation, for his people, and most importantly for his honor.

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History Of Tirumala Tirupati temple:India

History Of Tirumala Tirupati temple

There is ample literary and epigraphic testimony to the antiquity of the temple of Lord Sri Venkateswara. All the great dynasties of rulers of the southern peninsula have paid homage to Lord Sri Venkateswara in this ancient shrine. The Pallavas of Kancheepuram (9th century AD), the Cholas of Thanjavur (a century later), the Pandyas of Madurai, and the kings and chieftains of Vijayanagar (14th - 15th century AD) were devotees of the Lord and they competed with one another in endowing the temple with rich offerings and contributions.



It was during the rule of the Vijayanagar dynasty that the contributions to the temple increased. Krishnadevaraya had statues of himself and his consorts installed at the portals of the temple, and these statues can be seen to this day. There is also a statue of Venkatapati Raya in the main temple. After the decline of the Vijayanagar dynasty, nobles and chieftains from all parts of the country continued to pay their homage and offer gifts to the temple. The Maratha general, Raghoji Bhonsle, visited the temple and set up a permanent endowment for the conduct of worship in the temple. He also presented valuable jewels to the Lord, including a large emerald which is still preserved in a box named after the General. Among the later rulers who have endowed large amounts are the rulers of Mysore and Gadwal. After the fall of the Hindu kingdoms, the Muslim rulers of Karnataka and then the Britishers took over, and many of the temples came under their supervisory and protective control. In 1843 AD, the East India Company divested itself of the direct management of non-Christian places of worship and native religious institutions. The administration of the shrine of Sri Venkateswara and a number of estates were then entrusted to Sri Seva Dossji of the Hatiramji Mutt at Tirumala, and the temple remained under the administration of the Mahants for nearly a century, till 1933 AD.In 1933, the Madras Legislature passed a special act, which empowered the Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams (TTD) Committee to control and administer a fixed group of temples in the Tirumala-Tirupati area, through a Commissioner appointed by the Government of Madras.
Sri Venkatachala Mahatmya is referred to in several Puranas, of which the most important are the Varaha Purana and the Bhavishyottara Purana. The printed work contains extracts from the Varaha Purana, Padma Purana, Garuda Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Markandeya Purana, Harivamsa, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana, Brahmottara Purana, Aditya Purana, Skanda Purana and Bhavishyottara Purana. Most of these extracts describe the sanctity and antiquity of the hills around Tirumala and the numerous teerthams situated on them

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Famous Monuments In India – Charminar Global Icon of Hyderabad

India is place for lot of tourist attractions. Every year many people visiting Indian tourist attractions. We cannot number the attractions in India. In that Indian monument Attractions are playing a great role. Architecture and design lovers are must visit these monument attractions. One of the great monument attractions in India includes Charminar. Charminar it is located in Hyderabad, India. The charminar got this name from the two Urdu words char and minar.  It means “Four Towers”. The tower is attached with four grand arches. Charminar is situated on the bank of the Musi River. The charminar is also called as icon of Hyderabad. Charminar is built in 1591 by Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutub the fifth ruler of Qutb shahi. There is a particular time to visit charminar. The visiting time starts early morning at 9am and you can visit charminar till 5.30pm. Best time to visit charminar is from March to June. You can enjoy the sightseeing attractions during these months. Indian Monument Attractions are always looks great. Qutab shah built charminar to mark the end of the plague in Hyderabad city. You can see the charminar greater in the evening. It is decorated with full lights. It highlights more in the evening. Charminar is the two storied building. The first floor is covered and you can see the surrounding views from the balcony of this floor. It will give you a great experience for you.



There are two other attractions are also their near to charminar. They are Laad Bazaar and Mecca Mosque. Where Laad Bazaar is one of the old Bazaar in Hyderabad. Mecca mosque is considered as one of the big mosque in the world. At a time 10,000 worshipers can visit this mosque. Laad Bazaar market is a major attraction for the tourists and buyers. The construction of the mosque is started by the sultan Abdulla Qutab Shah in 1617. Later Aurangzeb finished the construction in 1693. Charminar is one of the major and important tourist spot in Hyderabad. If you are planning a trip to Hyderabad you must include Charminar in your list. It is one of the must see Indian Monument Attractions.



The great Indian monument attractions charminar is also called as symbol of Hyderabad or Pearl City. Here you will get good quality pearls, glass bangles, sarees etc. Char Minar offers stories related to its existence. If you are amongst those who love architecture and designs, then in your journey of life you must visit Charminar and enjoy it beautiful architecture.

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Famous Monuments in India – Sanchi Stupa

Sanchi is the small village located in Bhopal in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. The palace is filled with several great Buddhist monuments. It was actually build by the great Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd Century BC. The palace is sacred to the Buddhist from all over the world. The place is attracting tourist from each and every corner of the world. Famous Monuments in India are worth to visit.

Sanchi village is famous for the stupas, monasteries, temples and pillars. The most famous monuments of sanchi village are the Sanchi Stupa built by Ashoka. It is believed that the sanchi stupa is housing the relics of Buddha. Stupas at Sanchi are the most magnificent structures of ancient India. It is also called as the great Famous Monuments in India. It has been declared as the world Heritage site. UNESCO has included them as one of the heritage sites of the world. Stupas are large hemispherical domes, containing a central chamber, in which the relics of the Buddha were placed.



It is 36.5 m in diameter and rises almost 16.5 meters high. The taranas around it depict the magnificent example of the Buddhist art in the early period. The various facets of the Buddha’s life are presented through the symbols like lotus for hid birth, tree for the enlightenment, thew heel for the first sermon and so on. The place has historical importance even though the Buddha has never visited the place sanchi. Sanchi was built as the Buddhist studies and learning centre. Visitors can rest or can take the evening or morning walk in the lawns of the monument, maintained by the Archeological survey of India. Apart from this tourists can also take the excursion trip from Sanchi stupa or sanchi village to Vidisha.



There are many other monuments attractions are there in sanchi village. These are the Four GateWays, The Ashoka Pillar, The Sanchi Museum etc. The four gateways, constructed in 35 BCE, are considered as the best and the famous Buddhist expression in the world. These gateways are covered with wonderful architectural carvings. Never miss to visit Famous Monuments in India. The most famous Ashoka pillar, which contains four lions like that of Sarnath is found in Sanchi as well and these are constructed in a Greco-Buddhist style. The Ashok pillar is also famous for its beautiful construction and perfect structural balance. This describes the stories related to the Buddha’s life. The ideal time to visit Sanchi is from the months of November to February.

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Famous Monuments in India- India Gate a Tribute to the Brave at Heart

Delhi is the capital city of India.  Delhi attracts tourists from all over the world. There are many tourist attractions in the Delhi city.  Tour to Famous Monuments in India offers you pleasurable and memorable travel experience. It is also called as metropolitan city but has its own wonderful cultural heritage to offer. The heritage monuments of Delhi beautifully reflect the glorious history of this place. From heritage to history, entertainment, adventure, modern attractions, handicrafts, cuisine and theatre, Delhi offers lot of attractions for the tourists.

India Gate is built to commemorate the bravery of thousands of soldiers that gave up their lives during India’s historical war periods. It stands as a tribute to the 90,000 soldiers who sacrificed their lives during the World War I and the Afghan war. This splendid arched memorial reaches a majestic height of 42 meters. The India Gate is constructed out of granite and red sandstone. These are bought from different places of India. It is a prominent landmark in the heart of the city and is popular among both locals and tourists alike. It dates back to the year 1921 and India Gate was designed by Edward Lutyens. This beautiful India Gate memorial is also recognized as the site of the Amar Jawan Jyoti, which when translated means the ‘flame of the immortal soldier’. This shrine was built in remembrance of those who lost their lives in the India-Pakistan War in 1971.



The great India Gate is surrounded by lush green lawns, Children Park, boating etc which makes India Gate Delhi a popular picnic spot for the tourists. As the day draws to a close this great Famous Monuments in India is illuminated with light bulbs which make it look all the more enchanting. The India Gate looks best at night because night the illuminating light above the gate gives a different look. Its entire structure is very beautiful with the dark velvety sky.

Family members and couples visit the India Gate the great Famous Monuments in India to relax and have fun together. You can enjoy tasty snacks and local delicacies near to the monument. Such as bhelpuri which is very tasty and fruit salad with a spicy sauce that are sold by numerous food vendors in the vicinity. Indian Monuments Attractions are worth to visit. To see the gate in all its glory, visit it during a cultural festival and you can enjoy an array of singing and dancing performances as well. The best time to visit India Gate is after sunset because the atmosphere becomes very pleasant in the evening. Visitors can also enjoy boating in the water bodies alongside the lawns.

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Famous Monuments in India – Sun Temple, Konark

Sun Temple situated in Konark, Orissa. It is an ancient Hindu temple it has become the most famous and beautiful attractions of Orissa. Sun temple konark is the one of the great Indian Monument Attractions. The temple is one of the most renowned temples in India and is a World Heritage Site. It is one of the Seven Wonders of India. The temple was built within the 13th century by the King Narasimhadeo. Sun Temple can also be known as ‘Black Pagoda’ because it is built by using black granite. The temple focused on Sun God was build like a chariot to him with wheels on every side of the temple. It’s one from the earliest places where Sun God was worshiped.



Today some parts of the temple have reached ruins. Konark used to be an active port and several ships came and went. To Europeans, it served like a landmark that started calling the temple Black Pagoda. Sun Temple is very beautiful temple and if you visit the temple you can experience the very peaceful environment. This sun temple is marvel among the other temples and it has been the inspiration for a lot of writers and poets. Numerous books and articles associated with its background and architecture happen to be written.



The sun temple of Konark is beautifully situated on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. Konark is an excellent collection of traditional architecture and stunning natural atmosphere. A pleasing temple at a sauntering expanse from the beach bluster the deluxe of the conventional Indian architecture and art, which holds ones, breathe. Indian Monument Attractions are worth to visit. Konark is a place where the poetry carved stone temples wins ones heart with its impressive appeal. Among other attractions of the place are Konark Beach and the Konark Dance Festival.



The architecture of Sun Temple symbolizes the passage of time which according to Hindus is under the control of sun god. Sun Temple is really a type of Vahana (vehicle) style because it is the same shape as a chariot. The seven horses, which pull the temple towards the East into the dawn, it represent days of a week, the twelve pairs of wheels which represent twelve months of a year and the eight spokes in each of the wheels symbolize the eight stages of a woman’s day. The roof of the Sun Temple has three tiers covered in statues of musicians and dancers offering prayer to the sun god. The ideal time to visit konark is between the months of October to March.  Never miss to visit this spiritual place. Plan a tour to Indian Monument Attractions and explore the beauty of the temple.

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Monuments in India-HAWAMAHAL

Can you imagine a place called palace of winds or wind palace in your life? Yes it is there in the city of Jaipur, Rajasthan.  This is called as Hawa Mahal or Wind Palace. It is the most outstanding monument in the city. It is the most striking land mark of Jaipur located at the heart of the city. Hawa Mahal the great Famous Monuments in India are worth to visit. It was built in the year 1799 by Maharaja Pratap Singh. The palace is intricately carved and balconied, five storeyed pink sand stone building. It is an amazing architectural creation. The palace is shaped like a pyramid with number of small windows and screens decorated with tiny lattice work with arched roofs. The windows are made of sand stone which are known as ‘Jharokhas’ are constructed in such a style that it looks like a honeycomb. The air circulation through the windows always keeps the palace cool. Known for its Beehive like structure, the entrance to the palace is in the back side of the main building. The front part of the building has no entry at all.



The amazing fact about the Hawa mahal is that the rear side of the palace is rather plain. It does not have much ornamentation within the palace. The contrasts of both the sides are surprising, while every detail of the front side is done with minute accuracy and back side is white and plain. The back side is more a mass of pillars and passages. The famous Famous Monuments in India Hawa Mahal is built of using red and pink sand stones, which are exquisitely outlined with white boundaries and motif’s painted with quick lime. The Mahal is designed by Lal Chand Usta. The building is a stunning example of Rajput artistry. Its front from the road side makes the palace look more like an exquisite screen than a palace. The structure has the tier after tier of around 953 small casements.



Today, Hawa Mahal offers visual treat for the tourists who visit Jaipur.  You can experience the admirable views of the city and a bird’s eye view of the Jantar Mantar. This is a medieval observatory and a significant visitor place in Jaipur. Whenever you are planning a tour to Jaipur visit this beautiful Famous Monuments in India.

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Essay on Indian constitution: a unique document

The Indian Constitution, which stands for national goals like Democracy, Socialism, Secularism and National Integration, was framed by the representatives of Indian people after a long period of debates and discussions. It is the most detailed constitution in the world. No other constitution has gone into such minute details as the Indian Constitution.

The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly which was established in 1946. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected President of the Constituent Assembly. A Drafting Committe was appointed to draft the Constitution. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was appointed the Chairman of the Drafting Committee.

The Assembly met for 166 days spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 Days. The Constitution was adopted on 26 November, 1949. It came into force on 26 January, 1950. It had incorporated some of the salient features of the British, Irish, Swiss, French, Canadian and the American Constitutions.

The Constitution of India begins with a Preamble which contains the basic ideals and principles of the Contitution. It lays down the objectives of the frames of the Constitution. The Constitution contains 395-Articles and 12 Schedules. A number of amendment passed have also become a part of this Constitution.

The Constitution declares India to be a Sovereign, Secular, Socialist, and Democratic Republic. At the same time, India has federal features. The powers of the government are divided between the centred government and the state governments. The Constitution demarcates the powers of the central and estate governments into different lists of subjects.

These lists ire called the Union List, the State List and the Concurent List. The constitution provides for an independent and impartial lUdiciaiy and the Supreme Court is the highest court of the country. It decides disputes between the people and the government. The Constitution provides for the establishment of parliamentary form of government in India.

The President is the nominal head of the state. In actual practice the administration is run by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. The council of Ministers is responsible to the Parliament.

The Constitution of India guarantees Fundamental Rights to all its citizens. They have Right to Equality, Right to Freedom, right against Exploitation, Right to Freedom of Riligion, Cultural and Educational Rights and Right to Constitutional Remedies.

Taking inspiration from the Constitution'' of Ireland, framer of our constitution included the directive principles directions given to the central government and state governments to adopt such policies which would help establish a just society in our country. There are times when the country could not be run as in ordinary times. To cope with such difficult times, the constitution provides for the emergency provisions, which are it's another important features.

Yet another unique feature of our constition is that it is not as rigid as the American Constitution or as flexible as the British constitution. It means it is partly rigid and partly flexible. And so it can easily change and grow with the change of times.

Thus, Indian Constitution in keeping to its size has a number of distinctive features.

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Short Essay on 'Generation Gap'

A difference in opinions, values, attitudes and lifestyle among people of different ages is called 'generation gap'. Due to these differences, people belonging to different generations find themselves unable to relate to each other.

This communication gap between successive generations is not a new phenomenon. Parents and children across the world have been facing this problem. Due to fast-paced modern lifestyles, parents and children hardly find time together. The children, thus unable to express their thoughts and ideas to their parents, turn to friends for advice who are as inexperienced as they are.

Today's children are born into a competitive world and have a struggle to get every thing. Many a time their true potential gets overshadowed in the rat race. Parents- burdened by the expectations of the society- end up forcing certain subjects and careers and lives that their parents have chosen for them, children are left lost and confused.

Parents, on the other hand, feel that in this rapidly changing society where everyone is so self-centered, it is their duty to protect their children. Parents tend to feel that their children require guidance. This cannot be denied. But their constant monitoring makes children feel oppressed and they tend to turn rebellious.

It is essential for parents to talk to their children and treat them as individuals. To be forever treated as child can be irritating and sometimes even humiliating. Children, in turn, must reciprocate with due respect and attention. Matters such as career, lifestyle and sensitive issues like freedom of choice of friends must be dealt with carefully and with maturity.

Love and understanding are the best antidotes to this ever-widening generation gap. Only then will children look up to their parents and parents will not be burdened with their guilt of not being there for their children in their hour of need. In this way generation gap can atleast be narrowed, if not completely filled.

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Anatomy of Rape, Causes and Remedies

Anatomy of Rape, Causes and Remedies

"While a murderer destroys the physical frame of the victim, a rapist degrades and defiles the soul of a helpless female," is the famous quote on this topic.

Anatomy of Rape

Sexual assault on women is a common phenomenon in our country. Under sexual assault comes; molestation, eve-teasing, child sex abuse, rape, marital rape, domestic violence.

Of all these crimes, Rape is the most violent crime which is committed against women. According to Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code, Rape means an unlawful intercourse done by a man with a woman without her valid consent.

Rape outrages a woman's modesty. After a rape incident, a woman lives a pathetic life which includes fear, depression, guilt complex, suicidal action and social stigma.

In recent times, Rape incidents have increased manifold. According to statistics, two women are raped in the country every hour. If further statistics are to be believed, every 10 hours a girl of age 1-10 is being raped in India.

It appears that the rapists are not scared of laws. Also, cases are being reported where minors and elderly women are being raped. The recent incident which shook the nation was the gang rape of a 23 year old para-medical student in a moving bus on the streets of Delhi.

The cruelty which was shown towards the girl by the rapists filled every Indian with wrath. So much so was the anger, that thousands of people poured into the streets to demand justice for the young lady.

The protests compelled our leaders to sit up and think and now amendments of the laws concerned with sexual assault on women our underway.

Every day the newspaper reports of rape incidents. In majority of rape cases the accused is known to the victim. The accused may be a friend, a relative, neighbor.

Some cases are a rude shock to humanity like that of a five year innocent girl being raped by her neighbor. Not only he raped her, but damaged her internal organs beyond cure. Some cases have come into light wherein teachers have raped their students.

Causes of Rape

The important question which arises when we talk of rapes is what causes rape. Why rape cases are increasing at an alarming rate? First and the foremost cause of increasing rape cases is the lack of public safety. Women are not safe outside their homes and why only outside they are not safe even inside their homes.

A number of cases have been reported wherein the guilty has committed the crime in the very house of the victim. Rapes are being done in moving vehicles also which raise a question on the effectiveness of the traffic system of our country. Another important reason is the dearth of police officials and female police officers in particular. According to the Times of India, there is 1 officer for every 200 citizens.

Studies show that rape victims are more likely to report sex crimes if female police officers are available. Lack of female police further aggravates the problem.

Another very important reason is a sluggish court system of India and few convictions. India's court system is painfully slow and for rapes that do get reported, the conviction rate is not more than 26%.

As the accused is not convicted, others think that they can go around freely and rape whosoever they like. Stigmatizing the victim and encouraging the victim to compromise gives a further impetus to this horrendous crime.

In many rural areas, the victim is pressurized to drop charges against the guilty. Not only this they are encouraged to marry their rapist by telling them that nobody will marry them now and it will bring shame to her family.

In recent times, prominent leaders and experts have blamed women's clothing as responsible for increasing rape cases which is totally wrong. No clothing is an invitation to rape.

Remedies

The dire need of today is to curb this violent crime. The most important step to be taken in this direction is the strengthening of laws dealing with sexual assaults.

Death penalty should be imposed on a rape accused.

A woman's squad should be formed in every district which would exclusively deal with problems of women.

Fast track courts must be established so that justice is given as early as possible.

Some NGO should start Rape Crisis Centre where victim can approach by calling a toll-free number or physically visiting the local centres. Such centre should play a vital role in supporting rape victims to cope up with the psychological trauma and also guide them to obtain legal remedy.

Conclusion

Women are wonderful daughters, sisters, wives, and mothers. They should be loved, cared, respected and should be protected.

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Essay : IPL - A Heaven for Business but Hell for Cricket

IPL - A Heaven for Business but Hell for Cricket

Overview

• Meaning of IPL and its various teams.


• IPL makes huge business.


• The Twenty-Twenty format changes people's choice.


• Only the huge profit from the game attracts all i.e. actors, business community, players etc.


• The government should make full investigation about the allegation related to IPL.

The Indian Premier League (IPL) is a professional T20 cricket league in India contested every year by franchise teams representing Indian cities and states. The league was founded by Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and has eight teams namely Delhi Daredevils, Kings XI Punjab, Kolkata Knight Riders, Mumbai Indians, Royal Challenger Bangalore, Sunrisers Hyderabad, Rising Pune Supergiants and Gujarat Lions.In our cricket crazy country, IPL was widely appreciated by the cricket fans. Over the years, IPL became the most watched tournament. It became a platform for the budding Indian cricket players. The second edition of IPL took place in South Africa during its tough economic conditions. South Africa benefitted remarkably from the IPL as an economic stimulus event.

There was significant economic activity from thousands of tourists converging in that country. Hotels, restaurants, gift stores and other small businesses benefitted from increased spending from visitors and the IPL.

The huge fan following and love for the game of cricket has given many opportunistic people a chance to make money out of the game as a business. It has become a huge commercial venture. Millions of rupees are invested in every season and this money brings in the high stakes of the game. During the times of IPL, betting becomes a common phenomenon. No industry misses any opportunity to capitalise from this profit making instrument.

There are celebrities, cricketers, cheerleaders, and glamour involved in the sport but the most important thing that is missing is the real sport spirits itself The T-20 format doesn't test the real calibre of a player. It is like cricket being played in haste.

The twenty-twenty format of the game has made the Test and One-Day format very boring for the people. Nobody wants to watch a five day or eight-hour game when they have a choice of a three-hour one. A promising initiative, IPL had embroiled in controversy, money laundering, nepotism, corruption, and subsidy for the rich and famous.

The public trust was misused and a great opportunity to make a positive impact on society was lost. Irrespective of how one feels about the IPL, the fact is that it provides three hours of excitement and entertainment to millions of cricket enthusiast worldwide. There is a demand for such a form of cricket and the IPL capitalised on this passion. For a change, divisive issues like language, religion, or nationality have little influence on how cricket fans enjoy the game.

Looking at the administrative view, it's only the money which brings actors, business community, players, politicians everyone at the same place. On the whole, the love of game is suppressed to a great extent in front of the glory and shine of money which is blinding most of us. Looking at the overall impact, the IPL is going to do some damage with BCCI, for putting their own greedy aims ahead of the needs of cricket.

While some economic incentives and gains can be justified to get the ball rolling, there is enough evidence that the IPL is enormously profitable and there is no need to provide it tax subsidies or for the government to bear all the security costs. The IPL teams are owned by affluent and big bollywood stars.

But the government needs to stop subsidising these rich owners in the name of economic development that lowers the supposed risk but makes the rewards disproportionately higher. In fact, the opaqueness of the bidding process in the IPL gives rise to such disproportionate risk-reward trade-offs. The government needs to make a full investigation of alleged money laundering, tax evasion, gambling, and other illegal activities.

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